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<title>Köppen climate classification</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Köppen climate classification</span></span>

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</p><p>The <b>Köppen climate classification</b> divides Earth climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal <a href="Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> and temperature. The five main groups are <i>A</i> (<a href="Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">tropical</a>), <i>B</i> (<a href="Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">arid</a>), <i>C</i> (<a href="Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">temperate</a>), <i>D</i> (<a href="Continental_climate" title="Continental climate">continental</a>), and <i>E</i> (<a href="Polar_climate" title="Polar climate">polar</a>). Each group and subgroup is represented by a letter. All climates are assigned a main group (the first letter). All climates except for those in the <i>E</i> group are assigned a seasonal precipitation subgroup (the second letter). For example, <i>Af</i> indicates a <a href="Tropical_rainforest_climate" title="Tropical rainforest climate">tropical rainforest climate</a>. The system assigns a temperature subgroup for all groups other than those in the <i>A</i> group, indicated by the third letter for climates in <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, and the second letter for climates in <i>E</i>. Other examples include: <i>Cfb</i> indicating an <a href="Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">oceanic climate</a> with warm summers as indicated by the ending <i>b.</i>, while <i>Dwb</i> indicates a semi-<a href="Monsoon_continental_climate" title="Monsoon continental climate">monsoonal continental climate</a>, also with warm summers. Climates are classified based on specific criteria unique to each climate type.<sup id="cite_ref-kottek2006_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kottek2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Köppen climate classification is the most widely used <a href="Climate_classification" title="Climate classification">climate classification</a> scheme.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was first published by German-Russian <a href="Climate_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate science">climatologist</a> <a href="Wladimir_K%C3%B6ppen" title="Wladimir Köppen">Wladimir Köppen</a> (1846–1940) in 1884,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, German climatologist <a href="Rudolf_Geiger" title="Rudolf Geiger">Rudolf Geiger</a> (1894–1981) introduced some changes to the classification system in 1954 and 1961, which is thus sometimes called the <b>Köppen–Geiger climate classification</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>As Köppen designed the system based on his experience as a <a href="Botanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Botanist">botanist</a>, his main climate groups represent a classification by vegetation type. In addition to identifying climates, the system can be used to analyze ecosystem conditions and identify the main types of vegetation within climates. Due to its association with the plant life of a given region, the system is useful in predicting future changes of plant life within that region.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Köppen climate classification system was modified further within the <a href="Trewartha_climate_classification" title="Trewartha climate classification">Trewartha climate classification</a> system in 1966 (revised in 1980). The Trewartha system sought to create a more refined <a href="Middle_latitudes" title="Middle latitudes">middle latitude</a> climate zone, which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system (the climate group C was too general).<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 200–201">: 200–201 </span></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="List_of_cities_by_K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="List of cities by Köppen climate classification">List of cities by Köppen climate classification</a></div>

<caption>Köppen climate classification scheme symbols description table<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kottek2006_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kottek2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<th scope="col">1st

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<th scope="col">2nd

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<th scope="col">3rd

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<th scope="row">A (Tropical)

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<ul><li>f (Rainforest)</li>

<li>m (Monsoon)</li>

<li>w (Savanna, dry winter)</li>

<li>s (Savanna, dry summer)</li></ul>

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<th scope="row">B (Dry)

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<ul><li>W (Arid desert)</li>

<li>S (Semi-arid steppe)</li></ul>

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<th scope="row">C (Temperate)

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<ul><li>w (Dry winter)</li>

<li>f (No dry season)</li>

<li>s (Dry summer)</li></ul>

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<ul><li>a (Hot summer)</li>

<li>b (Warm summer)</li>

<li>c (Cold summer)</li></ul>

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<th scope="row">D (Continental)

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<ul><li>w (Dry winter)</li>

<li>f (No dry season)</li>

<li>s (Dry summer)</li></ul>

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<ul><li>a (Hot summer)</li>

<li>b (Warm summer)</li>

<li>c (Cold summer)</li>

<li>d (Very cold winter)</li></ul>

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<th scope="row">E (Polar)

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<ul><li>T (Tundra)</li>

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<p>The Köppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main climate groups: <i>A</i> (tropical), <i>B</i> (arid), <i>C</i> (temperate), <i>D</i> (continental), and <i>E</i> (polar).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second letter indicates the seasonal precipitation type, while the third letter indicates the level of heat.<sup id="cite_ref-hanschen_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hanschen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Summers are defined as the six-month period that is warmer either from April to September and/or October to March, while winter is the six-month period that is cooler.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_A:_Tropical_climates">Group A: Tropical climates</h3></div>

<p><a href="Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">Tropical climates</a> have an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher every month of the year, with significant precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><i>Af</i> = <a href="Tropical_rainforest_climate" title="Tropical rainforest climate">Tropical rainforest climate</a>; average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in) in every month.</li>

<li><i>Am</i> = <a href="Tropical_monsoon_climate" title="Tropical monsoon climate">Tropical monsoon climate</a>; driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at least <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./633020c2da496b0fcb4ae49e79aa7c87f1ad6e18.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:32.484ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}" loading="lazy"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i>Aw</i> or <i>As</i> = Tropical wet and dry or <a href="Tropical_savanna_climate" title="Tropical savanna climate">savanna</a> climate; with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less than <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}</annotation>

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</math></span><img src="./633020c2da496b0fcb4ae49e79aa7c87f1ad6e18.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:32.484ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}" loading="lazy"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_B:_Desert_and_semi-arid_climates">Group B: Desert and semi-arid climates</h3></div>

<p><a href="Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">Desert</a> and <a href="Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semi-arid</a> climates are defined by low precipitation in a region that does not fit the polar (EF or ET) criteria of no month with an average temperature greater than 10 °C (50 °F).

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The precipitation threshold in millimeters is determined by multiplying the average annual temperature in <a href="Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a> by 20, then adding:</p><div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the spring and summer months (April–September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October–March in the Southern), or</li><li>140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer, or</li><li>0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer.</li></ol></div>

<p>If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS (<a href="Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semi-arid</a>: steppe climate).<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, h signifies low-latitude climates (average annual temperature above 18 °C (64.4 °F)) while k signifies middle-latitude climates (average annual temperature less than 18 °C). In addition, n is used to denote a climate characterized by frequent fog and H for high altitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-Cereceda_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cereceda-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gepchile_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gepchile-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Inzunza_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inzunza-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><i>BWh</i> = <a href="Hot_desert_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot desert climate">Hot desert climate</a></li>

<li><i>BWk</i> = <a href="Cold_desert_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold desert climate">Cold desert climate</a></li>

<li><i>BSh</i> = <a href="Hot_semi-arid_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot semi-arid climate">Hot semi-arid climate</a></li>

<li><i>BSk</i> = <a href="Cold_semi-arid_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold semi-arid climate">Cold semi-arid climate</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_C:_Temperate_climates">Group C: Temperate climates</h3></div>

<p><a href="Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">Temperate climates</a> have the coldest month averaging between 0 °C (32 °F)<sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (or −3 °C (26.6 °F))<sup id="cite_ref-kottek2006_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kottek2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 18 °C (64.4 °F) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kottek2006_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kottek2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the distribution of precipitation in locations that both satisfy a dry summer (Cs) and a dry winter (Cw), a location is considered to have a wet summer (Cw) when more precipitation falls within the summer months than the winter months while a location is considered to have a dry summer (Cs) when more precipitation falls within the winter months.<sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This additional criterion applies to locations that satisfies both Ds and Dw as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><i>Cfa</i> = <a href="Humid_subtropical_climate" title="Humid subtropical climate">Humid subtropical climate</a>; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).</li>

<li><i>Cfb</i> = Temperate <a href="Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">oceanic climate</a> or <a href="Subtropical_highland_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical highland climate">subtropical highland climate</a>; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).</li>

<li><i>Cfc</i> = <a href="Subpolar_oceanic_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Subpolar oceanic climate">Subpolar oceanic climate</a>; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).</li>

<li><i>Cwa</i> = <a href="Monsoon" title="Monsoon">Monsoon</a>-influenced humid subtropical climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.</li>

<li><i>Cwb</i> = <a href="Subtropical_highland_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical highland climate">Subtropical highland climate</a> or Monsoon-influenced temperate oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.</li>

<li><i>Cwc</i> = Cold <a href="Subtropical_highland_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical highland climate">subtropical highland climate</a> or Monsoon-influenced subpolar oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.</li>

<li><i>Csa</i> = <a href="Hot-summer_Mediterranean_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot-summer Mediterranean climate">Hot-summer Mediterranean climate</a>; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i>Csb</i> = <a href="Warm-summer_Mediterranean_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Warm-summer Mediterranean climate">Warm-summer Mediterranean climate</a>; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i>Csc</i> = <a href="Mediterranean_climate#Cold-summer_Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Cold-summer Mediterranean climate</a>; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm (1.6 in).<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_D:_Continental_climates">Group D: Continental climates</h3></div>

<p><a href="Continental_climate" title="Continental climate">Continental climates</a> have at least one month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kottek2006_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kottek2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><i>Dfa</i> = Hot-summer <a href="Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">humid continental climate</a>; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).</li>

<li><i>Dfb</i> = Warm-summer <a href="Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">humid continental climate</a>; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).</li>

<li><i>Dfc</i> = <a href="Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">Subarctic climate</a>; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).</li>

<li><i>Dfd</i> = Extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).</li>

<li><i>Dwa</i> = Monsoon-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.</li>

<li><i>Dwb</i> = Monsoon-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C (71.6 °F), and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.</li>

<li><i>Dwc</i> = Monsoon-influenced <a href="Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">subarctic climate</a>; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.</li>

<li><i>Dwd</i> = Monsoon-influenced extremely cold <a href="Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">subarctic climate</a>; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.</li>

<li><i>Dsa</i> = <a href="Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Mediterranean</a>-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), average temperature of the warmest month above 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).</li>

<li><i>Dsb</i> = Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)), average temperature of the warmest month below 22 °C (71.6 °F) and at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).</li>

<li><i>Dsc</i> = Mediterranean-influenced subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).</li>

<li><i>Dsd</i> = Mediterranean-influenced extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C (−36.4 °F) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm (1.2 in).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_E:_Polar_and_alpine_climates">Group E: Polar and alpine climates</h3></div>

<p><a href="Polar_climate" title="Polar climate">Polar</a> and <a href="Alpine_climate" title="Alpine climate">alpine climates</a> has every month of the year with an average temperature below 10 °C (50 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><i>ET</i> = <a href="Tundra_climate" title="Tundra climate">Tundra climate</a>; average temperature of warmest month between 0 °C (32 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><i>EF</i> = <a href="Ice_cap_climate" title="Ice cap climate">Ice cap climate</a>; eternal winter, with all 12 months of the year with average temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Group_A:_Tropical/megathermal_climates">Group A: Tropical/megathermal climates</h2></div>

<p><a href="Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">Tropical climates</a> are characterized by constant high temperatures (at sea level and low elevations); all 12 months of the year have average temperatures of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher; and generally high annual precipitation. They are subdivided as follows:

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Af:_Tropical_rainforest_climate"><i>Af</i>: Tropical rainforest climate</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Tropical_rainforest_climate" title="Tropical rainforest climate">Tropical rainforest climate</a></div>

<p>All 12 months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). These climates usually occur within 10° latitude of the <a href="Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>. This climate has no natural seasons in terms of thermal and moisture changes.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When it is dominated most of the year by the <a href="Doldrums" class="mw-redirect" title="Doldrums">doldrums</a> low-pressure system due to the presence of the <a href="Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a> (ITCZ) and when there are no cyclones then the climate is qualified as equatorial. When the <a href="Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a> dominate most of the year, the climate is a tropical trade-wind rainforest climate.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Some of the places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwest <a href="Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> coast of <a href="South_America" title="South America">South</a> and <a href="Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>, from <a href="Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a> to <a href="Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>; see, for instance, <a href="Andagoya" title="Andagoya">Andagoya</a>, Colombia), but in many cases, the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as at <a href="Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a>, Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as at <a href="Sitiawan" title="Sitiawan">Sitiawan</a>, Malaysia). Among these places, some have a pure equatorial climate (Balikpapan, Kuala Lumpur, Kuching, Lae, Medan, Paramaribo, Pontianak, and Singapore) with the dominant ITCZ aerological mechanism and no cyclones or a subequatorial climate with occasional hurricanes (Davao, Ratnapura, Victoria).

</p><p>(The term <a href="Season" title="Season">aseasonal</a> refers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in daylight hours and mean monthly (or daily) temperature throughout the year. Annual cyclic changes occur in the tropics, but not as predictably as those in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to temperature, but to water availability whether as rain, mist, soil, or groundwater. Plant response (e.g., <a href="Phenology" title="Phenology">phenology</a>), animal (feeding, migration, reproduction, etc.), and human activities (plant sowing, harvesting, hunting, fishing, etc.) are tuned to this 'seasonality'. Indeed, in tropical South America and Central America, the 'rainy season' (and the 'high water season') is called <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="Rainy_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainy season">invierno</a></i></span> (Spanish) or <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">inverno</i></span> (Portuguese), though it could occur in the Northern Hemisphere summer; likewise, the 'dry season (and 'low water season') is called <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="Dry_season" title="Dry season">verano</a></i></span> or <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">verão</i></span>, and can occur in the Northern Hemisphere winter).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Am:_Tropical_monsoon_climate"><i>Am</i>: Tropical monsoon climate</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Tropical_monsoon_climate" title="Tropical monsoon climate">Tropical monsoon climate</a></div>

<p>This type of climate results from the <a href="Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> winds which change direction according to the seasons. This climate has a driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at least <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}">

<mrow>

<mfrac>

</mrow>

</mfrac>

</mrow>

</mrow>

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./633020c2da496b0fcb4ae49e79aa7c87f1ad6e18.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:32.484ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}" loading="lazy"></span> of average monthly precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 208">: 208 </span></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aw/As:_Tropical_savanna_climate"><i>Aw/As</i>: Tropical savanna climate</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Tropical_savanna_climate" title="Tropical savanna climate">Tropical savanna climate</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aw:_Tropical_savanna_climate_with_dry_winters"><i>Aw</i>: Tropical savanna climate with dry winters</h4></div>

<p><i>Aw</i> climates have a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less than <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}">

<mrow>

<mfrac>

</mrow>

</mfrac>

</mrow>

</mrow>

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./633020c2da496b0fcb4ae49e79aa7c87f1ad6e18.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:32.484ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)}" loading="lazy"></span> of average monthly precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 208–211">: 208–211 </span></sup>

</p><p>Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of the <a href="Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">tropical</a> zone from the low teens to the mid-20s latitudes, but occasionally an inner-tropical location (e.g., <a href="San_Marcos%2C_Antioquia" title="San Marcos, Antioquia">San Marcos, Antioquia</a>, Colombia) also qualifies. The <a href="Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean</a> coast, eastward from the <a href="Gulf_of_Urab%C3%A1" title="Gulf of Urabá">Gulf of Urabá</a> on the <a href="Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>–<a href="Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> border to the <a href="Orinoco_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Orinoco River">Orinoco River</a> delta, on the <a href="Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> (about 4,000 km (2,500 mi)), have long dry periods (the extreme is the <i>BWh</i> climate (see below), characterized by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for instance, in extensive areas in the <a href="Guajira_Peninsula" title="Guajira Peninsula">Guajira</a>, and <a href="Coro_region" title="Coro region">Coro</a>, western <a href="Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, the northernmost peninsulas in South America, which receive <300 mm (12 in) total annual precipitation, practically all in two or three months).

</p><p>This condition extends to the <a href="Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a> and <a href="Greater_Antilles" title="Greater Antilles">Greater Antilles</a> forming the circum-Caribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminish inland (southward); at the latitude of the Amazon River—which flows eastward, just south of the <a href="Equator" title="Equator">equatorial</a> line—the climate is <i>Af</i>. East from the <a href="Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>, between the dry, arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are the Orinoco River's <a href="Llanos" title="Llanos">Llanos</a> or <a href="Savanna" title="Savanna">savannas</a>, from where this climate takes its name.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As:_Tropical_savanna_climate_with_dry_summers"><i>As</i>: Tropical savanna climate with dry summers</h4></div>

<p>Sometimes <i>As</i> is used in place of <i>Aw</i> if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days (during summer).<sup id="cite_ref-kottek2006_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kottek2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nwskoppen_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nwskoppen-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the case in parts of <a href="Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, northwestern Dominican Republic, East Africa, southeast India and northeast Sri Lanka, and the Brazilian Northeastern Coast. In places that have this climate type, the dry season occurs during the time of high sun and longer days generally because of <a href="Rain_shadow" title="Rain shadow">rain shadow</a> effects.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Group_B:_Arid_(desert_and_semi-arid)_climates">Group B: Arid (desert and semi-arid) climates</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">Desert climate</a> and <a href="Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">Semi-arid climate</a></div>

<p>These climates are characterized by the amount of annual precipitation less than a threshold value that approximates the <a href="Potential_evapotranspiration" title="Potential evapotranspiration">potential evapotranspiration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 212">: 212 </span></sup> The threshold value (in millimeters) is calculated as follows:

</p><p>

Multiply the average annual temperature in °C by 20, then add</p><div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun half of the year (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October through March in the Southern), or</li><li>140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period, or</li><li>0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is so received.</li></ol></div>

<p>According to the modified Köppen classification system used by modern climatologists, total precipitation in the warmest six months of the year is taken as a reference instead of the total precipitation in the high-sun half of the year.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is <i>BW</i> (arid: <a href="Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">desert climate</a>); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is <i>BS</i> (semi-arid: <a href="Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">steppe climate</a>).

</p><p>A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, <i>h</i> signifies low-latitude climate (average annual temperature above 18 °C) while <i>k</i> signified middle-latitude climate (average annual temperature below 18 °C).

</p><p>Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations characterized by <a href="Fog_desert" title="Fog desert">frequent fog</a> and low clouds, although these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received, can be labeled <i>BWn</i> with the n denoting a climate characterized by frequent fog.<sup id="cite_ref-Cereceda_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cereceda-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gepchile_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gepchile-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Inzunza_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inzunza-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An equivalent <i>BSn</i> category can be found in foggy coastal steppes.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="BW:_Arid_climates"><i>BW</i>: Arid climates</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">Desert climate</a></div>

<p>The desert climate or arid climate (<i>BW</i>) is a <a href="Dry_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry climate">dry climate</a> sub-type in which there is a severe excess of <a href="Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> over <a href="Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>. The typically bald, rocky, or sandy surfaces in desert climates are dry and hold little moisture, quickly evaporating the already little rainfall they receive. Covering 14.2% of Earth's land area, hot deserts are the second-most common type of climate on Earth after the <a href="Polar_climate" title="Polar climate">Polar climate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-peel_et_al_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peel_et_al-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>There are two variations of a <a href="Desert" title="Desert">desert</a> climate: a hot desert climate (<i>BWh</i>), and a cold desert climate (<i>BWk</i>). To delineate "hot desert climates" from "cold desert climates", a mean annual temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) is used as an isotherm so that a location with a <i>BW</i> type climate with the appropriate temperature above this isotherm is classified as "hot arid subtype" (<i>BW<b>h</b></i>), and a location with the appropriate temperature below the isotherm is classified as "cold arid subtype" (<i>BW<b>k</b></i>).

</p><p>Most desert/arid climates receive between 25 and 200 mm (1 and 8 in) of rainfall annually,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although some of the most consistently hot areas of <a href="Central_Australia" title="Central Australia">Central Australia</a>, the <a href="Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> and <a href="Guajira_Peninsula" title="Guajira Peninsula">Guajira Peninsula</a> can be, due to extreme <a href="Potential_evapotranspiration" title="Potential evapotranspiration">potential evapotranspiration</a>, classed as arid with the annual rainfall as high as 430 millimetres or 17 inches.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="BWh:_Hot_deserts"><i>BWh</i>: Hot deserts</h4></div>

<p>Hot desert climates (<i>BWh</i>) are typically found under the <a href="Subtropical_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical ridge">subtropical ridge</a> in the lower middle latitudes or the <a href="Subtropics" title="Subtropics">subtropics</a>, often between 20° and 33° north and south latitudes. In these locations, stable descending air and high pressure aloft clear clouds and create hot, arid conditions with intense sunshine. Hot desert climates are found across vast areas of <a href="North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, <a href="West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, northwestern parts of the <a href="Indian_Subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</a>, southwestern Africa, interior Australia, the <a href="Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern United States</a>, northern <a href="Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, sections of southeastern <a href="Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, the coast of <a href="Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and <a href="Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> and parts of the Brazilian <a href="Sert%C3%A3o" title="Sertão">sertão</a>. This makes hot deserts present in every continent except Antarctica. At the time of high sun (summer), scorching, desiccating heat prevails. Hot-month average temperatures are normally between 29 and 35 °C (84 and 95 °F), and midday readings of 43–46 °C (109–115 °F) are common.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="BWk:_Cold_deserts"><i>BWk</i>: Cold deserts</h4></div>

<p>Cold desert climates (<i>BWk</i>) usually feature hot (or warm in a few instances), dry summers, though summers are not typically as hot as hot desert climates. Unlike hot desert climates, cold desert climates tend to feature cold, dry winters. Snow tends to be rare in regions with this climate. The <a href="Gobi_Desert" title="Gobi Desert">Gobi Desert</a> in northern China and Mongolia is one example of a cold desert. Though hot in the summer, it shares the freezing winters of the rest of <a href="Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a>. Summers in South America's <a href="Atacama_Desert" title="Atacama Desert">Atacama Desert</a> are mild, with only slight temperature variations between seasons. Cold desert climates are typically found at higher altitudes than hot desert climates and are usually drier than hot desert climates. Cold desert climates are typically located in temperate zones in the 30s and 40s latitudes, usually in the leeward <a href="Rain_shadow" title="Rain shadow">rain shadow</a> of high mountains, restricting precipitation from the westerly winds.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="BS:_Semi-arid_(steppe)_climates"><i>BS</i>: Semi-arid (steppe) climates</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">Semi-arid climate</a></div>

<p>A semi-arid or steppe climate is a <a href="Aridity" title="Aridity">dry climate</a> sub-type. It is located on regions that receive <a href="Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> below <a href="Evapotranspiration#Potential_evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">potential evapotranspiration</a>, but not as low as a <a href="Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">desert climate</a>. There are different kinds of semi-arid climates, depending on variables such as temperature, and they give rise to different <a href="Biome" title="Biome">biomes</a>.

</p>

<p>Hot semi-arid climates (type "BSh") tend to be located from the high teens to mid-30s latitudes of the <a href="Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> and <a href="Subtropics" title="Subtropics">subtropics</a>, typically in proximity to regions with a <a href="Tropical_savanna_climate" title="Tropical savanna climate">tropical savanna climate</a> or a <a href="Humid_subtropical_climate" title="Humid subtropical climate">humid subtropical climate</a>. These climates tend to have hot, or sometimes extremely hot, summers and warm to cool winters, with some to minimal precipitation. Hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found around the fringes of subtropical deserts.

</p>

<p>Cold semi-arid climates (type "BSk") tend to be located in elevated portions of <a href="Temperate_zones" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate zones">temperate zones</a> generally from the mid-30s to low 50s latitudes, typically bordering a <a href="Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">humid continental climate</a> or a <a href="Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Mediterranean climate</a>. They are also typically found in continental interiors some distance from large bodies of water. Cold semi-arid climates usually feature warm to hot dry summers, though their summers are typically not quite as hot as those of hot semi-arid climates. Unlike hot semi-arid climates, areas with cold semi-arid climates tend to have cold and possibly freezing winters. These areas usually see some <a href="Snowfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Snowfall">snowfall</a> during the winter, though snowfall is much lower than at locations at similar latitudes with more humid climates.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Group_C:_Temperate/mesothermal_climates">Group C: Temperate/mesothermal climates</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">Temperate climate</a></div>

<p>In the Köppen climate system, temperate climates are defined as having an average temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F), as noted previously) in their coldest month but below 18 °C (64.4 °F). The average temperature of −3 °C (26.6 °F) roughly coincides with the equatorward limit of frozen ground and snow cover lasting for a month or more.

</p><p>The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern—<i>w</i> indicates dry winters (driest winter month average precipitation less than one-tenth wettest summer month average precipitation). <i>s</i> indicates at least three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer. <i>f</i> means significant precipitation in all seasons (neither above-mentioned set of conditions fulfilled).<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat—<i>a</i> indicates warmest month average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F) while <i>b</i> indicates warmest month averaging below 22 °C but with at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F), and <i>c</i> indicates one to three months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peel_11-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peel-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kottek2006_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kottek2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cs:_Mediterranean-type_climates"><i>Cs</i>: Mediterranean-type climates</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Mediterranean climate</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Csa:_Hot-summer_Mediterranean_climates"><i>Csa</i>: Hot-summer Mediterranean climates</h4></div>

<p>These climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30° and 45°.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These climates are in the polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather. Summers are hot and dry, due to the domination of the subtropical high-pressure systems, except in the immediate coastal areas, where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bring <a href="Fog" title="Fog">fog</a> but prevent rain.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 221–223">: 221–223 </span></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Csb:_Warm-summer_Mediterranean_climates"><i>Csb</i>: Warm-summer Mediterranean climates</h4></div>

<p>Dry-summer climates sometimes extend to additional areas where the warmest month average temperatures do not reach 22 °C (71.6 °F), most often in the 40s latitudes. These climates are classified as <i>Csb</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Csc:_Cold-summer_Mediterranean_climates"><i>Csc</i>: Cold-summer Mediterranean climates</h4></div>

<p>Cold summer Mediterranean climates (<i>Csc</i>) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to coastal <i>Csb</i> climate areas, where the strong maritime influence prevents the average winter monthly temperature from dropping below 0 °C (32 °F). This climate is rare and is predominantly found in climate fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades and Andes Mountains, as the dry-summer climate extends further poleward in the Americas than elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rare instances of this climate can be found in some coastal locations in the North Atlantic and at high altitudes in Hawaii.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cfa:_Humid_subtropical_climates"><i>Cfa</i>: Humid subtropical climates</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Humid_subtropical_climate" title="Humid subtropical climate">Humid subtropical climate</a></div>

<p>These climates usually occur on the eastern coasts and eastern sides of continents, usually in the high 20s and 30s latitudes. Unlike the dry summer Mediterranean climates, humid subtropical climates have a warm and wet flow from the tropics that creates warm and moist conditions in the summer months. As such, summer (not winter as is the case in Mediterranean climates) is often the wettest season.

</p><p>The flow out of the subtropical highs and the summer monsoon creates a southerly flow from the tropics that brings warm and moist air to the lower east sides of continents. This flow is often what brings the frequent and strong but short-lived summer thundershowers so typical of the more southerly subtropical climates like the southeast United States, southern China, and Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 223–226">: 223–226 </span></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cfb:_Oceanic_climates"><i>Cfb</i>: Oceanic climates</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">Oceanic climate</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marine_west_coast_climate">Marine west coast climate</h4></div>

<p><i>Cfb</i> climates usually occur in the higher middle latitudes on the western sides of continents; they are typically situated immediately poleward of the Mediterranean climates in the 40s and 50s latitudes. However, in southeast Australia, southeast South America, and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately poleward of temperate climates, on places near the coast and at a somewhat lower latitude. In western Europe, this climate occurs in coastal areas up to 68°N in Norway.

</p><p>These climates are dominated all year round by the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are mild due to cool ocean currents. Winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes, but usually very cloudy, and frequently wet. <i>Cfb</i> climates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and tropical areas, where the climate would be that of a subtropical/tropical rainforest if not for the altitude. These climates are called "highlands".<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 226–229">: 226–229 </span></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subtropical_highland_climate_with_uniform_rainfall">Subtropical highland climate with uniform rainfall</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Oceanic_climate#Subtropical_highland_variety_(Cfb,_Cwb)" title="Oceanic climate">Oceanic climate § Subtropical highland variety (Cfb, Cwb)</a></div>

<p>Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall (<i>Cfb</i>) are a type of oceanic climate mainly found in the highlands of <a href="Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, such as in or around the <a href="Great_Dividing_Range" title="Great Dividing Range">Great Dividing Range</a> in the north of the state of <a href="New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>, and also sparsely in other continents, such as in <a href="South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, among others. Unlike a typical <i>Cwb</i> climate, they tend to have rainfall spread evenly throughout the year. They have characteristics of both the <i>Cfb</i> and <i>Cfa</i> climates, but unlike these climates, they have a high <a href="Diurnal_temperature_variation" title="Diurnal temperature variation">diurnal temperature variation</a> and low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively high <a href="Elevation" title="Elevation">elevation</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cfc:_Subpolar_oceanic_climate"><i>Cfc</i>: Subpolar oceanic climate</h3></div>

<p>Subpolar oceanic climates (<i>Cfc</i>) occur poleward of or at higher elevations than the maritime temperate climates and are mostly confined either to narrow coastal strips on the western poleward margins of the continents, or, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, to islands off such coasts. They occur in both hemispheres, generally in the high 50s and 60s latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere and the 50s latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cw:_Dry-winter_subtropical_climates"><i>Cw</i>: Dry-winter subtropical climates</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cwa:_Dry-winter_humid_subtropical_climate"><i>Cwa</i>: Dry-winter humid subtropical climate</h4></div>

<p><i>Cwa</i> is a monsoonal influenced version of the <a href="Humid_subtropical_climate" title="Humid subtropical climate">humid subtropical climate</a>, having the classic dry winter–wet summer pattern associated with tropical monsoonal climates. They are found at similar latitudes as the <i>Cfa</i> climates, except in regions where monsoons are more prevalent. These regions are in the <a href="Southern_Cone" title="Southern Cone">Southern Cone</a> of South America, the <a href="Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Gangetic Plain</a> of South Asia, southeastern Africa, parts of East Asia and Mexico, and <a href="Northern_Vietnam" title="Northern Vietnam">Northern Vietnam</a> of Southeast Asia.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cwb:_Dry-winter_subtropical_highland_climate"><i>Cwb</i>: Dry-winter subtropical highland climate</h4></div>

<p>Dry-winter subtropical highland climate (<i>Cwb</i>) is a type of climate mainly found in highlands inside the tropics of <a href="Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>, <a href="South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and <a href="South_Asia" title="South Asia">South</a> and <a href="Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> or areas in the subtropics. Winters are noticeable and dry, and summers can be very rainy. In the tropics, the monsoon is provoked by the tropical air masses and the dry winters by subtropical high pressure.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cwc:_Dry-winter_cold_subtropical_highland_climate"><i>Cwc</i>: Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climate</h4></div>

<p>Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climates (<i>Cwc</i>) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to <i>Cwb</i> climates. This climate is rare and is found mainly in isolated locations mostly in the Andes in Bolivia and Peru, as well as in sparse mountain locations in Southeast Asia.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Group_D:_Continental/microthermal_climates">Group D: Continental/microthermal climates</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Continental_climate" title="Continental climate">Continental climate</a></div>

<p>These climates have an average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) in their warmest months, and the coldest month average below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F), as noted previously). These usually occur in the interiors of continents and on their upper east coasts, normally north of 40°N. In the Southern Hemisphere, group D climates are extremely rare due to the smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land at 40–60°S, existing only in some highland locations.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dfa/Dwa/Dsa:_Hot_summer_humid_continental_climates"><i>Dfa/Dwa/Dsa</i>: Hot summer humid continental climates</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hot-summer_humid_continental_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot-summer humid continental climate">Hot-summer humid continental climate</a></div>

<p><i>Dfa</i> climates usually occur in the high 30s and low 40s latitudes, with a qualifying average temperature in the warmest month of greater than 22 °C (72 °F). In Europe, these climates tend to be much drier than in North America. <i>Dsa</i> exists at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (<i>Csa</i>) climates.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 231–32">: 231–32 </span></sup>

</p><p>These climates exist only in the Northern Hemisphere because the Southern Hemisphere has no large landmasses isolated from the moderating effects of the sea within the middle latitudes.

</p><p>In eastern Asia, <i>Dwa</i> climates extend further south into the mid-30s latitudes due to the influence of the Siberian high-pressure system, which also causes winters there to be dry, and summers can be very wet because of <a href="Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> circulation.

</p><p><i>Dsa</i> exists only at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (<i>Csa</i>) climates.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dfb/Dwb/Dsb:_Warm_summer_humid_continental/hemiboreal_climates"><i>Dfb/Dwb/Dsb</i>: Warm summer humid continental/hemiboreal climates</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Warm-summer_humid_continental_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Warm-summer humid continental climate">Warm-summer humid continental climate</a></div>

<p><i>Dfb</i> climates are immediately poleward of hot summer continental climates, generally in the high 40s and low 50s latitudes in North America and Asia, and also extending to higher latitudes into the high 50s and low 60s latitudes in central and eastern Europe, between the maritime temperate and continental subarctic climates.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Like with all Group D climates, <i>Dwb</i> climates mostly only occur in the northern hemisphere.

</p><p><i>Dsb</i> arises from the same scenario as <i>Dsa</i>, but at even higher altitudes or latitudes, and chiefly in North America, since the Mediterranean climates extend further poleward than in Eurasia.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dfc/Dwc/Dsc:_Subarctic/boreal_climates"><i>Dfc/Dwc/Dsc</i>: Subarctic/boreal climates</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">Subarctic climate</a></div>

<p><i>Dfc</i>, <i>Dsc</i> and <i>Dwc</i> climates occur poleward of the other group D climates, or at higher altitudes, generally in the 50s and 60s latitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-McKnight_10-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKnight-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 232–235">: 232–235 </span></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dfd/Dwd/Dsd:_Subarctic/boreal_climates_with_severe_winters"><i>Dfd/Dwd/Dsd</i>: Subarctic/boreal climates with severe winters</h3></div>

<p>Places with this climate have severe winters, with the temperature in their coldest month lower than −38 °C (−36 °F). These climates occur only in eastern <a href="Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, and are the second coldest, before EF. The coldest recorded temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere belonged to this climate. The names of some of the places with this climate have become veritable synonyms for the extreme, severe winter cold.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Group_E:_Polar_climates">Group E: Polar climates</h2></div>

<p>In the Köppen climate system, polar climates are defined as the warmest temperature of any month being below 10 °C (50 °F). Polar climates are further divided into two types, tundra climates and icecap climates:

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ET:_Tundra_climate"><i>ET</i>: Tundra climate</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Tundra_climate" title="Tundra climate">Tundra climate</a></div>

<p><a href="Tundra_climate" title="Tundra climate">Tundra climate</a> (<i>ET</i>): warmest month has an average temperature between 0 °C (32 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F). These climates occur on the northern edges of the North American and Eurasian land masses (generally north of 70 °N although they may be found farther south depending on local conditions), and on nearby islands. <i>ET</i> climates are also found on some islands near the Antarctic Convergence, and at high elevations outside the polar regions, above the tree line.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="EF:_Ice_cap_climate"><i>EF</i>: Ice cap climate</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ice_cap_climate" title="Ice cap climate">Ice cap climate</a></div>

<p><a href="Ice_cap_climate" title="Ice cap climate">Ice cap climate</a> (<i>EF</i>): this climate is dominant in Antarctica, inner <a href="Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, and summits of many high mountains, even at lower latitudes. Monthly average temperatures never exceed 0 °C (32 °F).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecological_significance">Ecological significance</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomass">Biomass</h3></div>

<p>The Köppen climate classification is based on the empirical relationship between climate and vegetation. This classification provides an efficient way to describe climatic conditions defined by temperature and precipitation and their seasonality with a single metric. Because climatic conditions identified by the Köppen classification are ecologically relevant, it has been widely used to map the geographic distribution of long-term climate and associated ecosystem conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3></div>

<p>Over recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using the classification to identify changes in climate and potential changes in vegetation over time.<sup id="cite_ref-hanschen_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hanschen-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important ecological significance of the Köppen climate classification is that it helps to predict the dominant vegetation type based on the climatic data and vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 2015, a <a href="Nanjing_University" title="Nanjing University">Nanjing University</a> paper published in <i>Scientific Reports</i> analyzing climate classifications found that between 1950 and 2010, approximately 5.7% of all land area worldwide had moved from wetter and colder classifications to drier and hotter classifications. The authors also found that the change "cannot be explained as natural variations but are driven by anthropogenic factors".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A 2018 study provides detailed maps for present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_Köppen_climate_maps">Other Köppen climate maps</h2></div>

<p>All maps use the ≥0 °C (32 °F) definition for the temperate-continental border.<sup id="cite_ref-Beck_9-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beck-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="gallerytext">North America</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Europe</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Russia</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Central Asia</div>

</li>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">South America</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Africa</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Western Asia</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">South Asia</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Southeast Asia</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Melanesia/Oceania</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Australia</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">New Zealand</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">World (1991–2020)</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">World (2071–2099, SSP245)</div>

</li>

</ul>

<ul><li><a href="Trewartha_climate_classification" title="Trewartha climate classification">Trewartha climate classification</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardiness_zone" title="Hardiness zone">Hardiness zone</a></li>

<li><a href="Holdridge_life_zones" title="Holdridge life zones">Holdridge life zones</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_cities_by_K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="List of cities by Köppen climate classification">List of cities by Köppen climate classification</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFKottekGrieserBeckRudolf2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kottek, Markus; Grieser, Jürgen; Beck, Christoph; Rudolf, Bruno; Rubel, Franz (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opus.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/opus4/files/40083/metz_Vol_15_No_3_p259-263_World_Map_of_the_Koppen_Geiger_climate_classification_updated_55034.pdf">"World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Meteorologische Zeitschrift</i>. <b>15</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">259–</span>263. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006MetZe..15..259K">2006MetZe..15..259K</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1127%2F0941-2948%2F2006%2F0130">10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Koppen-climate-classification">"Koppen climate classification | climatology"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170804183630/https://www.britannica.com/science/Koppen-climate-classification">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEstienneGodard" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Estienne, Pierre; Godard, Alain. "Chapitre XVI". <i>Climatologie</i> (in French). Éditions Armand Colin. pp. <span class="nowrap">308–</span>323. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>2-200-31042-0</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCritchfield1983" class="citation book cs1">Critchfield, Howard J (1983). <i>General Climatology</i> (4th ed.). New Delhi: Prentice Hall. pp. <span class="nowrap">154–</span>161. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-81-203-0476-5</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBeckZimmermannMcVicarVergopolan2018" class="citation journal cs1">Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6207062">"Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution"</a>. <i>Scientific Data</i>. <b>5</b> (1): 180214. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018NatSD...580214B">2018NatSD...580214B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsdata.2018.214">10.1038/sdata.2018.214</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2052-4463">2052-4463</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6207062">6207062</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30375988">30375988</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53111021">53111021</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:K%C3%B6ppen-Geiger" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Köppen-Geiger">Köppen-Geiger</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://360.org/climate/koppen-classification/">World maps and graphs plus a video about the Köppen climate classification</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100906034159/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/">World Map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification for the period 1951–2000</a> (archived 6 September 2010)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210110084254/http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/globgrids/KC_classification_en.asp">New gridded maps of Koeppen's climate classification (July 2006)</a> at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 10 January 2021)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_records">Climate records</h3></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160418082322/http://www.ipcc-data.org/maps/">IPCC Data Distribution Center</a> (archived 18 April 2016)</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Climate_types_under_the_Köppen_climate_classification187" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a> types under the </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cceeff;"><a href="Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">Class A</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tropical_rainforest_climate" title="Tropical rainforest climate">Tropical rainforest <i>(Af)</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Tropical_monsoon_climate" title="Tropical monsoon climate">Tropical monsoon <i>(Am)</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Tropical_savanna_climate" title="Tropical savanna climate">Tropical savanna <i>(Aw, As)</i></a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cceeff;">Class B</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">Desert<i> (BWh, BWk)</i></a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cceeff;"><a href="Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">Class C</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Humid_subtropical_climate" title="Humid subtropical climate">Humid subtropical <i>(Cfa, Cwa)</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">Oceanic <i>(Cfb, Cwb, Cfc, Cwc)</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Mediterranean <i>(Csa, Csb, Csc)</i></a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cceeff;"><a href="Continental_climate" title="Continental climate">Class D</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Humid_continental_climate" title="Humid continental climate">Humid continental <i>(Dfa, Dwa, Dsa, Dfb, Dwb, Dsb)</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">Subarctic <i>(Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd, Dwd, Dsd)</i></a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cceeff;"><a href="Polar_climate" title="Polar climate">Class E</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tundra_climate" title="Tundra climate">Tundra <i>(ET)</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Alpine_climate" title="Alpine climate">Alpine <i>(ET, EF)</i></a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#cceeff;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="List_of_cities_by_K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification" title="List of cities by Köppen climate classification">List of cities by Köppen climate classification</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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